Pakistan Journal of Terrorism Research

Online Radicalization in Pakistan: A Critical Appraisal

2025-10-10T08:36:14+00:00

Digital Media (DM) has changed the traditional ways of radicalization processes, providing violent extremists with new methods to spread their messages, attract new followers and mobilize members. This study develops a triangulated theoretical framework to examine how digital media promotes radicalization, based on the Psychological Theory of Radicalization, the Hypodermic Needle Theory, and Filter Bubbles. It identifies the most influential digital media platforms (X, YouTube, and Facebook), websites, and encrypted applications (WhatsApp and Telegram) that contribute to the formation of echo chambers and the promotion of dangerous extreme opinions. The analysis of cases involving individuals and groups demonstrates the connection between psychological vulnerabilities, algorithmic processes, and extremism in the context of radicalization. This paper reveals that if digital radicalization is not controlled, it can lead to increase in national security threats, social division, and economic challenges. By applying deductive qualitative reasoning, this paper analyzes the mechanisms of algorithms, echo chambers, and targeted propaganda. Lastly, the DMF-RVE framework adds new value to the existing conceptual lens to analyze academic and policy relationship debates between digital media and radicalization.

Exchanges of Sectarian Hate Speech in Pakistan: Analyzing Social Media’s Role in Amplifying Violent Religious Extremism

2025-10-10T08:41:01+00:00

This study aims to investigate the role of social media in spreading violent religious extremism through examining exchanges of online hate speech in Pakistan. In recent years social media platforms such as Facebook, YouTube, X(Twitter), Instagram and WhatsApp have increasingly transformed into incubators of exchanges of hate-filled speeches between and among religious and sectarian groups and individuals. Social media’s VE content exacerbates divisions in society through fanning the flames of religious, sectarian and ethnic/nationalist intolerance. This paper will utilize the conflict escalation theory of political sociology, which asserts that conflicts escalate over cycles of action and reaction. This is especially relevant in the current digital age where hatred among religious and sectarian groups or ideological rivals is frequently augmented in a cyclic manner. Additionally, this paper will also utilize the Social Identity Theory, which focusses on how in-group identities are strengthened in opposition to out-groups. The findings suggest that hate speech spreads faster than counter-narrative measures, often reaching vulnerable communities and target audiences faster than their counterparts. It recommends a multi-stakeholder approach of government, digital tech companies, civil society, and academic community that can collectively create a joint mechanism to oversee online content, create awareness on digital literacy, and strengthen counter/alternate narratives.

Encrypted Extremism: Recruitment, Financing, and Cybersecurity Implications for Pakistan

2025-10-10T08:44:52+00:00

The dark web has emerged as a pivotal arena for terrorist operations, offering anonymity and security through encryption, hidden networks, and decentralised platforms. This article explores how extremist organisations exploit these technologies to recruit, radicalise, and finance their operations, with an emphasis on recent shifts toward privacy-enhancing cryptocurrencies and gamified propaganda. Drawing from case studies of jihadist and far-right groups, it identifies evolving tactics and assesses counterterrorism challenges including encryption, jurisdiction, and ethical surveillance. Integrating examples from Pakistan’s cyber policy landscape, the paper argues for a multi-tiered response combining forensic technology, harmonised legal frameworks, and localised digital literacy efforts. Effective countermeasures must emerge from a clear understanding of how these digital spaces are weaponised, particularly in regions facing hybrid security threats.

Dark Web: Terrorist Recruitment and Propaganda Dissemination

2025-10-10T08:55:54+00:00

This research explores the evolving threat posed by the Dark Web in facilitating terrorist recruitment and propaganda dissemination, with a specific focus on Pakistan’s internal security challenges. It examines how extremist organizations such as Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (TTP)/Fitna al Khwarij (FaK) and Al-Qaeda in the Indian Subcontinent (AQIS) have adapted to digital environments, using anonymized networks, encrypted messaging platforms, and decentralized communication tools to radicalize and recruit individuals particularly disillusioned youth in urban and conflict-affected regions. The paper analyzes key digital propaganda instruments such as Mujahid Times and encrypted video channels, illustrating how extremist narratives are tailored to exploit religious, political, and socio-economic grievances in the Pakistani context. Drawing on official government reports, the paper evaluates Pakistan’s institutional, legal and policy responses. The study also identifies critical gaps in technical capacity, inter-agency coordination, and jurisdictional enforcement particularly regarding activities conducted via the Dark Web and overseas servers. The increasing use of cryptocurrencies, peer-to-peer encrypted platforms, and lone-wolf radicalization tactics underscores the need for more agile and integrated counterterrorism strategies. The paper concludes that Pakistan must develop a forward-looking, multi-dimensional approach to counter the digital evolution of terrorism and underscores the urgent need for comprehensive policy and technological reforms to address the emerging digital front of extremist violence.

Ibn Taymiyyah’s Medieval Inghimas Tactic as Daesh’s Modern Propaganda Instrument

2025-10-10T09:05:13+00:00

Inghimas originated from the work of the medieval scholar Ibn Taymiyyah as an asymmetric and practicable “jihad” (holy war) tactic. This was intended to be a means for plunging destructively into the “infidel” enemy’s frontlines for “benefitting the cause of Muslims” and “serving Islam”. The other objectives behind the use of this tactic were to inspire fellow Muslims to fight, and to earn “martyrdom at the hands of the enemy”. Based on its scholarly justification and apparent repurposing potential, this original paper investigates whether Daesh as a modern jihadist organization has additionally reinvented inghimas for the fulfillment of ends that extend beyond its originally intended military purpose. Methodologically relying on thorough research that involved studying various open-source primary and secondary resources, this paper reveals that Daesh has, indeed, adapted inghimas to the production of audio, video, and text propaganda suited to 21^st-century digital media. Thus, this tactic in all its various forms, and even its practitioners, are presented tactfully for public consumption in important ways. Such propaganda pertains to either claiming responsibility for recent assaults or urging further attacks, aimed at different audiences. The group thus exploits inghimas for vital outreach purposes in the digital era, in addition to its physical military utility. Effective countering of such a lethal tactic will require nothing short of deconstructing its scholarly foundations. This study carries both academic and policy significance as it sheds light on an unaddressed international security predicament, whose continued neglect will have dangerous consequences for jihadist radicalization and recruitment.